Crown, Conquest, and Christendom: The Enduring Legacy of Charlemagne

The name of Charlemagne is one that will ring familiar to many, a name that has been invoked by many powers in the centuries since he reigned, from the Holy Roman Empire to Nazi Germany. We all know that Charlemagne was some great king of France. What many don’t realize is that Charlemagne was the king of France before the name of France even existed. 

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great, was a medieval emperor who ruled much of Western Europe from 768 to 814. Born in 747, he was the son of Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, and Bertrada of Laon.  The exact location of his birth is uncertain, but it was likely in modern-day Belgium or Germany. His early life is not well documented, but it is known that he was groomed for leadership from a young age. Charlemagne is best known for uniting most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire and laying the foundations for modern France and Germany. In 751, Charlemagne's father, Pepin, deposed the last Merovingian king and established the Carolingian dynasty. Upon Pepin’s death in 768, Charlemagne and his brother Carloman inherited the kingdom, ruling jointly until Carloman’s sudden death in 771. With his brother’s death, Charlemagne became the sole ruler of the Franks.

Charlemagne’s reign was marked by a series of military campaigns aimed at expanding and consolidating his power. His conquests were both politically motivated and driven by a desire to spread Christianity. In 774, Charlemagne crossed the Alps and defeated the Lombards in Italy, taking the title "King of the Lombards." This campaign solidified his control over Northern Italy. One of Charlemagne’s longest and most brutal campaigns was against the Saxons, a pagan people living in what is now Germany. The Saxon Wars lasted from 772 to 804, during which Charlemagne forcibly converted the Saxons to Christianity and integrated their territory into his empire. Charlemagne also campaigned against the Avars, a nomadic people in Central Europe. By 796, he had destroyed the Avar Khanate, extending his influence into what is now Austria and Hungary. In 778, Charlemagne attempted to expand into the Iberian Peninsula. Although he was met with limited success, the campaign led to the establishment of the Spanish March, a buffer zone between the Frankish Empire and the Muslim-controlled territories of Spain.

Charlemagne surrounded by his principal officers welcomes Alcuin who shows him manuscripts, work of his monks in 781. Detail of the. Painting by Jules Laure (1806-1861) – Getty Images

Charlemagne’s most significant moment came on Christmas Day in the year 800. While attending Mass in St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Pope Leo III unexpectedly crowned him "Emperor of the Romans." This event was symbolic, as it marked the revival of the Western Roman Empire, which had fallen in the 5th century. The coronation also represented a fusion of Roman, Christian, and Germanic elements, setting the stage for the medieval concept of Christendom, where the emperor was seen as the protector of the Christian world.

Charlemagne was not only a warrior king but also a patron of culture and learning. His reign saw the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of art, literature, and education. Charlemagne sought to standardize Christian worship and liturgy throughout his empire, bringing scholars from all over Europe to his court at Aachen (in modern-day Germany). Under his rule, Latin literacy was promoted, classical texts were copied and preserved, and a new script, known as Carolingian minuscule, was developed, which made reading and writing easier and more uniform. Charlemagne reformed the legal and administrative systems of his empire, seeking to create a more unified and efficient government. He issued capitularies, which were royal decrees that covered various aspects of governance, from church regulations to judicial matters. He also appointed missi dominici, royal agents who traveled throughout the empire to enforce his laws and ensure loyalty from local nobles.

Charlemagne's legacy is profound and multifaceted, influencing the political, cultural, and religious development of Europe for centuries. Charlemagne's coronation as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 by Pope Leo III is often considered the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Although the term "Holy Roman Empire" wasn't used until later, Charlemagne's reign established the precedent of a Christian empire in Western Europe that sought to revive the glory and unity of the ancient Roman Empire. This concept endured until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

Charlemagne's military conquests and diplomatic efforts brought much of Western and Central Europe under a single rule for the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire. His empire included modern-day France, Germany, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Austria, and parts of Italy and Spain. This unification laid the groundwork for the development of modern European states and helped to create a sense of shared identity among the people of Europe.

Charlemagne's reign saw a revival of learning, culture, and the arts, known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He promoted education, encouraged the preservation and copying of classical texts, and supported the development of a standardized Latin script known as Carolingian minuscule, which became the basis for modern European scripts. His court at Aachen became a center of intellectual life, attracting scholars from across Europe.

Charlemagne was a devout Christian and saw himself as a protector of the Church. He worked closely with the papacy to promote the spread of Christianity throughout his empire, often by force, as seen in his campaigns against the Saxons. He also supported the reform of the Church and the standardization of Christian liturgy. His close relationship with the papacy set a precedent for the relationship between the Church and European monarchs, influencing the political and religious landscape of medieval Europe.

Charlemagne implemented a series of legal and administrative reforms that helped to strengthen and unify his empire. He issued capitularies, which were royal decrees that addressed a wide range of issues, from legal matters to church administration. He also established a system of local governance through the appointment of counts and missi dominici, royal agents who ensured the enforcement of his laws and maintained the loyalty of local nobles. These reforms laid the groundwork for the development of medieval European feudalism.

The division of Charlemagne's empire among his grandsons through the Treaty of Verdun in 843 led to the formation of distinct political entities that would eventually become modern France, Germany, and Italy. Charlemagne is often regarded as a founding figure of both France and Germany, and his legacy is celebrated in the national histories of these countries.

Throughout history, Charlemagne has been celebrated as a symbol of European unity and identity. In the 19th century, during the rise of nationalism, he was portrayed as a unifying figure who brought together diverse peoples under a single rule. In the 20th century, with the creation of the European Union, Charlemagne was again invoked as a symbol of a united Europe. The Charlemagne Prize, established in 1950 and awarded annually in Aachen, honors individuals and institutions for their contributions to European unity.

Over time, Charlemagne became a legendary figure, celebrated in medieval literature and folklore. The "Song of Roland," an epic poem from the 11th century, immortalizes Charlemagne as a heroic and pious ruler. His legendary status contributed to the ideal of kingship in medieval Europe and influenced the way later rulers sought to emulate his achievements.

However, Charlemagne's legacy is vast, encompassing political unification, cultural revival, religious influence, and the shaping of European identity. His reign is often seen as a turning point in European history, marking the transition from the early Middle Ages to a more structured and unified medieval Europe. His influence continues to be felt in the cultural and political foundations of modern Europe.